Access and utilization of host-derived iron by Leishmania parasites.

Iron is involved in many biochemical processes including oxygen transport, ATP production, DNA synthesis and antioxidant defense. The importance of iron also applies to Leishmania parasites, an intracellular protozoan pathogen causing leishmaniasis. Leishmania are heme-auxotrophs, devoid of iron storage proteins and the heme synthesis pathway. Acquisition of iron and heme from the surrounding niche is thus critical for the intracellular survival of Leishmania inside the host macrophages. Moreover, Leishmania parasites are also exposed to oxidative stress within phagolysosomes of macrophages in mammalian hosts, and they need iron superoxide dismutase for overcoming this stress. Therefore, untangling the strategy adopted by these parasites for iron acquisition and utilization can be good targets for the development of antileishmanial drugs. Here, in this review, we will address how Leishmania parasites acquire and utilize iron and heme during infection to macrophages.

AUF-1 knockdown in mice undermines gut microbial butyrate-driven hypocholesterolemia through AUF-1-Dicer-1-mir-122 hierarchy.

Introduction and objective: Cholesterol homeostasis is a culmination of cellular synthesis, efflux, and catabolism to important physiological entities where short chain fatty acid, butyrate embodied as a key player. This discourse probes the mechanistic molecular details of butyrate action in maintaining host-cholesterol balance. Methods: Hepatic mir-122 being the most indispensable regulator of cholesterol metabolic enzymes, we studied upstream players of mir-122 biogenesis in the presence and absence of butyrate in Huh7 cells and mice model. We synthesized unique self-transfecting GMO (guanidinium-morpholino-oligo) linked PMO (Phosphorodiamidate-Morpholino Oligo)-based antisense cell-penetrating reagent to selectively knock down the key player in butyrate mediated cholesterol regulation. Results: We showed that butyrate treatment caused upregulation of RNA-binding protein, AUF1 resulting in RNase-III nuclease, Dicer1 instability, and significant diminution of mir-122. We proved the importance of AUF1 and sequential downstream players in AUF1-knock-down mice. Injection of GMO-PMO of AUF1 in mouse caused near absence of AUF1 coupled with increased Dicer1 and mir-122, and reduced serum cholesterol regardless of butyrate treatment indicating that butyrate acts through AUF1. Conclusion: The roster of intracellular players was as follows: AUF1-Dicer1-mir-122 for triggering butyrate driven hypocholesterolemia. To our knowledge this is the first report linking AUF-1 with cholesterol biogenesis.

A Novel Bioimpedance-Based Detection of Miltefosine Susceptibility Among Clinical Leishmania donovani Isolates of the Indian Subcontinent Exhibiting Resistance to Multiple Drugs.

The extent of susceptibility towards miltefosine (Mil), amphotericin B (AmpB), and paromomycin (Paro) was measured among 19 clinical isolates of Leishmania donovani (LD). Thirteen of these clinical isolates were reported to exhibit low susceptibility towards sodium stibogluconate (SSG-R), while six of them were highly susceptible (SSG-S). The degree of clearance of amastigotes (EC50) for these predefined SSG-R- and SSG-S-infected macrophages was determined against Mil, AmpB, and Paro. Two out of the 13 SSG-R isolates (BHU575 and BHU814) showed low susceptibility towards all three drugs studied, while the rest of the 11 SSG-R isolates showed varying degrees of susceptibility either towards none or only towards individual drugs. Interestingly, all the SSG-S isolates showed high susceptibility towards Mil/AmpB/Paro. The total intracellular non-protein thiol content of the LD promastigotes, which have been previously reported to be positively co-related with EC50 towards SSG, was found to be independent from the degree of susceptibility towards Mil/AmpB/Paro. Impedance spectra analysis, which quantifies membrane resistance, revealed lower impedimetric values for all those isolates exhibiting low efficacy to Mil (Mil-R). Our analysis points out that while non-protein thiol content can be an attribute of SSG-R, lower impedimetric values can be linked with lower Mil susceptibility, although neither of these parameters seems to get influenced by the degree of susceptibility towards AmpB/Paro. Finally, a correlation analysis with established biological methods suggests that impedance spectral analysis can be used for the accurate determination of lower Mil susceptibility among LD isolates, which is further validated in the LD-infected in vivo hamster model.

Linking membrane fluidity with defective antigen presentation in leishmaniasis.

Hampering-surface presentation of immunogenic peptides by class I/II MHCs is a key strategy opted by several intracellular protozoan pathogens including Leishmania to escape CD8/CD4 mediated host-protective T-cell response. Although Leishmania parasites (LP) primarily hijack/inhibit host lysosomal/proteasomal pathways to hamper antigen-processing/presentation machinery, recent pieces of evidence have linked host-membrane fluidity as a major cause of defective antigen presentation in leishmaniasis. Increased membrane fluidity severely compromised peptide-MHC stability in the lipid raft regions, thereby abrogating T-cell mediated-signalling in the infected host. LP primarily achieves this by quenching host cholesterol, which acts as cementing material in maintaining the membrane fluidity. In this review, we have particularly focused on several strategies opted by LP to hijack-host cholesterol resulting in lipid droplets accumulation around leishmania-containing parasitophorous vacuole favouring intracellular survival of LP. In fact, LP infection can result in altered cholesterol and lipid metabolism in the infected host, thereby favouring the establishment and progression of the infection. From our analysis of two genome-wide transcriptomics data sets of LP infected host, we propose a possible molecular network that connects these interrelated events of altered lipid metabolism with eventual compromised antigen presentation, still existing as a gap in our current understanding of Leishmania infection.

Short-Course Treatment With Imipramine Entrapped in Squalene Liposomes Results in Sterile Cure of Experimental Visceral Leishmaniasis Induced by Antimony Resistant Leishmania donovani With Increased Efficacy.

Previously we have shown that long term oral treatment of tricyclic-antidepressant-drug, imipramine, against experimental visceral leishmaniasis, results in clearance of organ parasites, regardless of input infection, either with antimony-sensitive (SbS) or antimony-resistant (SbR) Leishmania donovani (LD) clinical isolates. Although continuous imipramine monotherapy for 28 days (5 mg/kg) results in significant clearance of organ parasites in both SbR and SbSLD infected hamsters, the dose for the sterile parasite clearance from visceral organ is comparatively higher (10 mg/kg) and shows signs of toxicity. Hence, to reduce the toxicity, we encapsulated imipramine in squalene-phosphatidylcholine (SP) liposome (Lip-Imi) and tested its efficacy for a short-course treatment (10 days) in the animal model of visceral leishmaniasis. We observed a significant reduction of hepatic toxicity coupled with sterile parasite clearance in case of this short-course treatment of Lip-Imi, which is absent with free Imi treatment. This also correlates with significant increase in serum availability of imipramine in case of Lip-Imi treatment due to sustained release. Clearance of parasite was coupled with the polarization of antileishmanial immune repertoire from Th2 to Th1 after treatment with Lip-Imi in both SbRLD and SbSLD infected mouse models of LD infection. This study showed that imipramine is effective against both SbSLD and SbRLD at a significantly lower dose with reduced time course of treatment without any toxic side effects, when encapsulated in SP-liposome. Thus, the drug has the potential to be repurposed for the treatment of Kala-azar.